Vulvovaginal candidiasis

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Researched by:

  • Divine Aleru ID
    Divine Aleru

    User avatarI am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.

    Read More

July 29, 2025

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

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Researched by:

  • Divine Aleru ID
    Divine Aleru

    User avatarI am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.

    Read More

Last Updated: 2025-07-29

Microbiome Signatures identifies and validates condition-specific microbiome shifts and interventions to accelerate clinical translation. Our multidisciplinary team supports clinicians, researchers, and innovators in turning microbiome science into actionable medicine.

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Divine Aleru

I am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.

Overview

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a highly prevalent fungal infection predominantly caused by Candida albicans and occasionally by non-albicans species such as C. glabrata and C. krusei. It affects approximately 70-75% of women at least once in their lifetime, with 5-8% experiencing recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis (RVVC), defined as four or more symptomatic episodes per year.[1] The disease manifests as an acute inflammatory condition of the vulva and vaginal mucosa, characterized by itching, burning, redness, and abnormal vaginal discharge. The pathogenesis is multifactorial, involving complex interactions among the Candida species’ virulence factors, host immune responses, estrogenic environment, and vaginal microbiome, primarily Lactobacilli.[2] Candida’s ability to switch between yeast and hyphal forms, form biofilms, and secrete toxins such as candidalysin contributes to infection persistence and symptom severity. Diagnosis remains challenging due to the presence of Candida as a commensal in many asymptomatic women.[3] Treatment mainly relies on azole antifungals, though increasing azole resistance, especially among non-albicans species, complicates management.[4][5] Long-term maintenance antifungal regimens are often necessary for RVVC but are associated with risks of resistance and relapse. Patient quality of life is significantly affected due to physical discomfort, psychological burden, and impaired sexual health. Advancing diagnostic accuracy, understanding microbiome-host interactions, and developing novel therapeutics are critical needs for improving clinical outcomes.

Associated Conditions

RVVC is linked with several associated conditions that modulate susceptibility and severity. High estrogen states such as pregnancy, use of oral contraceptives, and hormone replacement therapy increase the risk by altering vaginal immunity and microbiome balance.[6] Diabetes mellitus and immunosuppressive states, including HIV infection, also predispose women to frequent recurrences.[7][8] Antibiotic usage disrupts the protective Lactobacillus-dominant vaginal microbiota, facilitating Candida overgrowth.[9] Behavioral factors such as frequent sexual intercourse, use of poorly ventilated clothing, and atopic diseases may contribute to susceptibility. Genetic polymorphisms affecting innate immune signaling pathways have been implicated in impaired fungal clearance and enhanced inflammation. These factors, individually or in combination, create a permissive environment for Candida pathogenicity and chronic infection.

Causal Theories

The etiology of VVC remains incompletely understood and is recognized as multifactorial. The primary causal theory revolves around an imbalance between Candida virulence mechanisms and host immune defenses. Candida albicans employs a polymorphic lifestyle, switching from benign yeast to invasive hyphal forms, secreting enzymes and candidalysin that promote tissue invasion and inflammation. Biofilm formation further shields Candida from antifungal agents.[10] Host factors impair fungal clearance, including estrogen-driven changes, neutrophil dysfunction, and genetic variants in pattern recognition receptors. The vaginal microbiome, particularly Lactobacilli, usually suppresses Candida growth; disruptions to this ecosystem via antibiotics or other factors remove this inhibition.[11] Limitations in current causal theories include insufficient understanding of the triggers converting asymptomatic colonization into symptomatic infection and the role of non-cultivable fungal species. Novel hypotheses suggest that immunological hypersensitivity to Candida antigens may drive symptoms independent of fungal load, highlighting the complexity of RVVC pathogenesis.[12]

TheoryDescription
Candida Virulence & MorphogenesisCandida’s morphological switching and virulence factor secretion lead to tissue damage
Host Immune DysfunctionGenetic and functional immune defects impair fungal clearance
Microbiome DysbiosisDisruption of Lactobacillus-dominated vaginal flora facilitates Candida overgrowth
Hypersensitivity ResponseExaggerated inflammatory reaction to Candida antigens causes symptoms

Diagnosis

Accurate diagnosis of VVC requires confirmation of Candida presence combined with clinical symptoms. Conventional diagnosis relies on clinical examination, microscopy to detect pseudohyphae or blastospores, and culture to identify Candida species.[13] However, microscopy sensitivity ranges from 50-80%, and culture may be slow or inconclusive. Molecular methods such as PCR enhance detection sensitivity and can identify mixed or resistant strains, but are not widely accessible.[14] Identification of Candida species is crucial, as non-albicans species often exhibit reduced susceptibility to azoles. Antifungal susceptibility testing is recommended in refractory cases.[15] Emerging research into microbiome and metabolomic signatures holds promise for non-invasive diagnostics that distinguish colonization from infection and identify treatment-resistant profiles.[16] Nonetheless, lack of point-of-care rapid testing and inconsistent guideline adherence contribute to delayed or inappropriate treatment, underscoring the need for improved diagnostics integrating microbiome insights.

Primer

VVC cannot be fully understood without considering its relationship with the vaginal microbiome, where beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus species maintain an acidic environment that suppresses fungal overgrowth. Beyond microbial interactions, the vaginal environment’s metal content plays a vital role. Essential metals like zinc and copper are tightly controlled by the host through nutritional immunity mechanisms to restrict fungal growth. Meanwhile, Candida has evolved strategies to acquire these metals despite host defenses. This dynamic interplay between the host’s immune system, resident microbes, and metal availability forms a complex network that shapes the course of VVC and offers new directions for diagnosis and treatment.

Metallomic Signatures

The metallomic signature of VVC reflects how Candida albicans interacts with and adapts to metal stress in the host environment. Research shows that C. albicans can tolerate and even sequester high concentrations of toxic metals like chromium, lead, and zinc, using biosorption mechanisms involving its cell wall.[17][x] These adaptations not only enhance its survival in hostile environments but may also reinforce its biofilm structure and resistance to antifungal agents. Additionally, differential sensitivity to metals like cadmium and mercury indicates the presence of complex detoxification and efflux pathways, which may overlap with drug resistance mechanisms. From a therapeutic perspective, disrupting Candida’s metal homeostasis, or exploiting its biosorptive capacity, could offer novel treatment strategies, particularly in drug-resistant or recurrent VVC cases. This metallomic insight expands our understanding of the infection beyond microbiome shifts, adding a crucial chemical-ecological layer to host-pathogen interactions.

What is the Metallomic Signature of Vulvovaginal candidiasis?

Zinc (Zn

Zinc is a vital micronutrient that Candida albicans requires for enzymatic functions and virulence.[18] The host restricts zinc availability through sequestration proteins like calprotectin, which bind zinc to limit fungal growth.[19] In response, C. albicans expresses zinc scavenging proteins such as PRA1 and the high-affinity transporter ZRT1 to overcome this metal limitation.[20]

Copper (Cu)

Copper serves dual roles as an essential cofactor and a potential toxin. The host limits copper access to Candida by sequestration, forcing the fungus to adapt by downregulating copper-dependent enzymes like SOD1 and upregulating manganese-dependent alternatives such as SOD3.[21] Copper also exhibits antimicrobial properties that disrupt fungal respiration and ATP production.[22]

Lead (Pb)

Lead is a toxic heavy metal to which Candida albicans shows biosorption ability.[23][x] Although not essential for fungal growth, lead exposure influences fungal physiology and may affect biofilm formation. The full role of lead in VVC pathogenesis requires further study.

Mercury (Hg) and Silver (Ag)

Both mercury and silver possess potent antifungal effects by inhibiting cellular respiration and enzymatic activity in Candida.[24][25][x] Silver ions, in particular, demonstrate significant antifungal potential and are explored as topical treatments for resistant infections. Candida’s resistance to these metals is limited, highlighting their promise as adjunctive therapies.

Nutritional Immunity

Nutritional immunity is a key host defense mechanism in VVC, where the body restricts access to essential metals like zinc and copper to limit the growth and virulence of Candida albicans. During infection, immune cells such as neutrophils release calprotectin, a protein that tightly binds these metals, effectively starving the fungus of nutrients it needs to survive.[26] In response, C. albicans activates specialized metal-scavenging systems, including the zinc-binding protein PRA1 and transporter ZRT1, and shifts its antioxidant defenses to rely on manganese when copper is unavailable.[27] This ongoing struggle between host and pathogen, essentially a biochemical tug-of-war over micronutrients, plays a critical role in infection severity and persistence. When the vaginal microbiota, particularly protective Lactobacillus species, is disrupted, this defense can weaken, giving Candida a competitive edge.[28] Understanding nutritional immunity not only sheds light on the pathogenesis of VVC but also suggests new therapeutic directions, including strategies that enhance host metal-binding defenses or target fungal nutrient acquisition systems.

Microbiome Signature: Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Interventions

Our validation method evaluates the efficacy of microbiome-targeted interventions for VVC by correlating their influence on vaginal microbial balance, clinical symptom resolution, and the modulation of pathogenic mechanisms such as Candida overgrowth and biofilm formation. This approach distinguishes interventions that are validated, promising, or experimental based on the strength of evidence connecting changes in the vaginal microbiome with clinical improvement and relevant microbiological signatures.

InterventionClassificationMechanism of ActionMBTI Status
Probiotics SupplementReplenish beneficial vaginal microbiota, competitively inhibit Candida, acidify vaginal pH, produce antifungal compounds and immunomodulate host response.[29][30]Validated
PostbioticsSupplementBioactive compounds released by probiotics, such as bacteriocins, SCFAs, and enzymes that inhibit pathogen growth and modulate inflammation.[31][x]Promising Candidate
Prebiotics/SynbioticsSupplementSelectively enhance growth of beneficial microbes, thus indirectly suppressing Candida overgrowth; synbiotics combine prebiotics and probiotics.[32][33][x]Promising Candidate
Vaginal Microbiome Transplantation (VMT)Microbiota-based therapyTransplant healthy donor vaginal microbiota to restore eubiosis and Lactobacillus dominance, reversing dysbiosis linked to VVC.[34][x]Promising Candidate
Short chain fatty acid supplementsSupplementModulate vaginal pH, inhibit Candida growth and virulence, support mucosal immunity.[35][x][36]Under investigation
LactoferrinSupplementChelates iron and other metals, impairs Candida growth, modulates inflammation, supports mucosal immunity.[37][38]Promising candidate
Dietary Supplementation to maintain optimal calprotectin responsesDietCalciprotein binds and withholds essential metals (Zn, Cu), induces nutritional immunity, inhibits Candida growth and virulence gene expression.[39]Experimental
Boric acidPharmaceuticalDisrupts Candida cell wall integrity, inhibits biofilm formation, restores vaginal acidity, effective against non-albicans and azole-resistant Candida species.[40]Validated

FAQs

How does the vaginal microbiome influence susceptibility to recurrent VVC (RVVC)?

The vaginal microbiome is crucial in determining whether a woman will experience recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC). A healthy microbiome, dominated by Lactobacillus species, produces lactic acid, which helps maintain an acidic vaginal pH of around 4.5, an environment that inhibits Candida overgrowth. In women with RVVC, the vaginal microbiome often shows a reduced abundance of Lactobacillus species, with an overgrowth of other bacteria or fungi, allowing Candida to thrive. Additionally, factors like immune system dysfunction, such as neutrophil dysfunction, can impair the body’s ability to clear Candida effectively. Disruption of the microbiome can also lead to biofilm formation by Candida, which further shields the pathogen from antifungal treatments and immune responses, leading to persistent or recurrent infections. This imbalance in the vaginal microbiome plays a pivotal role in the recurrence of VVC, making its restoration through probiotics and other therapies a promising strategy for preventing RVVC.

Why do some women experience recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC), while others only have one episode?

Recurrent vulvovaginal candidiasis (RVVC) occurs in women who experience multiple episodes of VVC, typically four or more within a year. The key difference between women with RVVC and those with a single episode is often the underlying imbalance in the vaginal microbiome and the immune system. Women with RVVC commonly have a decreased abundance of Lactobacillus species, which leads to a higher pH environment and greater availability of nutrients for Candida growth. Additionally, women with RVVC may have an impaired immune response, with neutrophil dysfunction or genetic predispositions that prevent effective clearance of the yeast. The presence of biofilms, where Candida adheres to vaginal tissues and forms a protective matrix, is another factor contributing to recurrence. Biofilms make Candida more resistant to antifungal treatments and immune responses, leading to chronic infection. Hormonal changes, diabetes, antibiotic use, and stress can also act as triggers for recurrence, making RVVC more common in susceptible individuals.

How can the microbiome be manipulated to help treat and prevent vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC)?

Restoring a healthy vaginal microbiome is a crucial strategy for treating and preventing vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC), especially in cases of recurrent infections. Probiotics containing Lactobacillus species are the most common intervention to help restore the balance of the vaginal microbiome. These probiotics work by outcompeting Candida for nutrients and space, as well as producing lactic acid to maintain the acidic pH that inhibits Candida growth. Probiotic treatments, whether oral or topical, have been shown to reduce the recurrence of VVC, particularly when used in conjunction with antifungal therapy. Furthermore, dietary changes that promote the growth of beneficial bacteria, such as consuming fiber-rich foods and limiting refined sugars, can support a healthier microbiome. In some cases, personalized microbiome testing may provide insights into specific imbalances, allowing for more targeted treatments, such as custom probiotic formulations, to restore a protective microbiota. As we learn more about the interactions between the microbiome, immune system, and Candida, future therapies may include even more precise approaches to manipulating the vaginal microbiome to prevent and treat VVC.

Research Feed

Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection
March 2, 2024
/
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Dual Mechanisms of Action: Anti-Candida and Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Lactobacillus Fermentation Broth in Treating Vulvovaginal Candidiasis
December 30, 2024
/
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: A Current Understanding and Burning Questions.
February 25, 2020
/
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Microbiota in vaginal health and pathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal infections: a critical review
January 28, 2020
/
Bacterial Vaginosis
Bacterial Vaginosis

Did you know?
Bacterial vaginosis (BV) increases the risk of acquiring HIV by up to 60% in women due to the disruption of the protective vaginal microbiome and the resulting inflammation that facilitates the virus’s entry.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion
September 9, 2022
/
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Current patient perspectives of vulvovaginal candidiasis: incidence, symptoms, management and post-treatment outcomes
March 29, 2019
/
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Vulvovaginal Candidosis: Current Concepts, Challenges and Perspectives
November 7, 2020
/
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)
Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Did you know?

Antibiotics can increase the risk of VVC. Antibiotics can disrupt the balance of the vaginal microbiome by reducing Lactobacillus levels, allowing Candida to overgrow and cause infection. This is why VVC is often a side effect of antibiotic treatment.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Lactoferrin Is Broadly Active against Yeasts and Highly Synergistic with Amphotericin B
April 21, 2020

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The Antifungal Activity of Lactoferrin and Its Derived Peptides
January 18, 2017

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Clinicians’ use of Intravaginal Boric Acid Maintenance Therapy for Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis and Bacterial Vaginosis
December 1, 2019
/
Bacterial Vaginosis
Bacterial Vaginosis

Did you know?
Bacterial vaginosis (BV) increases the risk of acquiring HIV by up to 60% in women due to the disruption of the protective vaginal microbiome and the resulting inflammation that facilitates the virus’s entry.

Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.

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Update History

2025-07-29 06:35:37

Page Created major

Page Created June 1, 2025

2025-05-29 11:26:44

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC) major

published

Nutritional Immunity

Nutritional immunity restricts metal access to pathogens, leveraging sequestration, transport, and toxicity to control infections and immunity.

Microbiome-Targeted Interventions (MBTIs)

Microbiome Targeted Interventions (MBTIs) are cutting-edge treatments that utilize information from Microbiome Signatures to modulate the microbiome, revolutionizing medicine with unparalleled precision and impact.

Validation of Boric Acid (BA) as a microbiome-targeted intervention for Bacterial Vaginosis and Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Boric acid restores microbial balance in the vagina by increasing Lactobacillus and reducing harmful species, making it an effective treatment for recurrent BV and VVC.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Bacterial Vaginosis

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is caused by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota, where the typically dominant Lactobacillus species are significantly reduced, leading to an overgrowth of anaerobic and facultative bacteria.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Vulvovaginal Candidiasis (VVC)

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a common fungal infection caused by Candida albicans. Disruptions in the vaginal microbiome and immune responses contribute to its development. Effective treatment involves both antifungal therapy and strategies to restore microbiome balance, preventing recurrent infections and addressing emerging antifungal resistance.

Women’s Health

Women’s health, a vital aspect of medical science, encompasses various conditions unique to women’s physiological makeup. Historically, women were often excluded from clinical research, leading to a gap in understanding the intricacies of women’s health needs. However, recent advancements have highlighted the significant role that the microbiome plays in these conditions, offering new insights and potential therapies. MicrobiomeSignatures.com is at the forefront of exploring the microbiome signature of each of these conditions to unravel the etiology of these diseases and develop targeted microbiome therapies.

Bacterial Vaginosis

Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is caused by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota, where the typically dominant Lactobacillus species are significantly reduced, leading to an overgrowth of anaerobic and facultative bacteria.

References

  1. Vulvovaginal Candidosis: Current Concepts, Challenges and Perspectives. Sustr, V., Foessleitner, P., Kiss, H., & Farr, A. (2020). (Journal of Fungi, 6(4), 267)
  2. Microbiota in vaginal health and pathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal infections: a critical review. Kalia, N., Singh, J. & Kaur, M.. (Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 19, 5 (2020))
  3. Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion. Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022). (Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353)
  4. Vulvovaginal Candidosis: Current Concepts, Challenges and Perspectives. Sustr, V., Foessleitner, P., Kiss, H., & Farr, A. (2020). (Journal of Fungi, 6(4), 267)
  5. Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion. Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022). (Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353)
  6. Estrogen promotes innate immune evasion of Candida albicans through inactivation of the alternative complement system. Kumwenda P, Cottier F, Hendry AC, Kneafsey D, Keevan B, Gallagher H, Tsai HJ, Hall RA.. (Cell Rep. 2022 Jan 4;38(1):110183)
  7. Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: An Immunological Perspective. Rosati D, Bruno M, Jaeger M, Ten Oever J, Netea MG.. (Microorganisms. 2020 Jan 21;8(2):144)
  8. Candida species isolated from the vaginal mucosa of HIV-infected women in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. Oliveira PM, Mascarenhas RE, Lacroix C, Ferrer SR, Oliveira RP, Cravo EA, Alves AP, Grassi MF.. (Braz J Infect Dis. 2011 May-Jun;15(3):239-44)
  9. Interactions between Candida albicans and the resident microbiota. Li H, Miao MX, Jia CL, Cao YB, Yan TH, Jiang YY, Yang F.. (Front Microbiol. 2022 Sep 20;13:930495. doi:)
  10. Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion. Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022). (Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353)
  11. Dual Mechanisms of Action: Anti-Candida and Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Lactobacillus Fermentation Broth in Treating Vulvovaginal Candidiasis. Horng H-C, Xu J-W, Kuo Y-S, Chen Y-S, Chiu Y-H, Tsui K-H, Tung Y-T.. (Journal of Fungi. 2025; 11(1):18)
  12. Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: An Immunological Perspective. Rosati D, Bruno M, Jaeger M, ten Oever J, Netea MG.. (Microorganisms. 2020; 8(2):144.)
  13. Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion. Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022). (Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353)
  14. Clinical Evaluation of Polymerase Chain Reaction Coupled with Quantum Dot Fluorescence Analysis for Diagnosis of Candida Infection in Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Practice. Fan W, Li J, Chen L, Wu W, Li X, Zhong W, Pan H.. (Infect Drug Resist. 2023 Jul 25;16:4857-4865)
  15. Identification of Candida species and susceptibility testing with Sensititre YeastOne microdilution panel to 9 antifungal agents. Kucukates E, Gultekin NN, Alisan Z, Hondur N, Ozturk R.. (Saudi Med J. 2016 Jul;37(7):750-7)
  16. Mycobiome Study Reveals Different Pathogens of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Shape Characteristic Vaginal Bacteriome. Zhao C,,Li Y, Chen B,Yue K,Su Z,Xu J, Xue W, Zhao G, Zhang L,,,2023.. (Microbiol Spectr11:e03152-22)
  17. Biosorption of Heavy Metals by Candida albicans.. Rodríguez, I. A., Cárdenas-González, J. F., Juárez, V. M. M., Pérez, A. R., Zarate, M. de G. M., & Castillo, N. C. P. (2018). (InTech.)
  18. Pathogenesis and virulence of Candida albicans. Lopes JP, Lionakis MS.. (Virulence. 2022 Dec;13(1):89-121)
  19. Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans. Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.. (Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17)
  20. Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans. Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.. (Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17)
  21. Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans. Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.. (Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17)
  22. Copper as an antimicrobial agent: recent advances. Salah I, Parkin IP, Allan E.. (RSC Adv. 2021 May 19;11(30):18179-18186)
  23. Biosorption of Heavy Metals by Candida albicans.. Rodríguez, I. A., Cárdenas-González, J. F., Juárez, V. M. M., Pérez, A. R., Zarate, M. de G. M., & Castillo, N. C. P. (2018). (InTech.)
  24. Evaluation of Antifungal Activity by Mixed Oxide Metallic Nanocomposite against Candida spp.. Ayanwale AP, Estrada-Capetillo BL, Reyes-López SY.. (Processes. 2021; 9(5):773)
  25. Antifungal Activity against Human and Plant Mycopathogens, and Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Exhibiting Such Activity. Górka K, Kubiński K.. (Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(1):115.)
  26. Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans. Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.. (Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17)
  27. Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans. Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.. (Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17)
  28. The role of Lactobacillus species in the control of Candida via biotrophic interactions. Zangl I, Pap IJ, Aspöck C, Schüller C.. (Microb Cell. 2019 Nov 25;7(1):1-14)
  29. The Role of Probiotics in the Treatment of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Zahedifard T, Khadivzadeh T, Rakhshkhorshid M.. (Ethiop J Health Sci. 2023 Sep;33(5):881-890)
  30. The Role of Probiotics as Adjunct Treatment in the Prevention and Management of Gynecological Infections: An Updated Meta-analysis of 35 RCT Studies. Abavisani, Mohammad, Saeed Sahebi, Farhad Dadgar, Farzaneh Peikfalak, and Masoud Keikha. (Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 63, no. 3 (2024): 357-368. Accessed June 6, 2025.)
  31. Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection. Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).. (Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.)
  32. Prebiotics and Probiotics in Vulvovaginal Infections. Gandhi AB, Purandare A, Athota K, et al.. (J South Asian Feder Obst Gynae 2022;14(3):343–346.)
  33. Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection. Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).. (Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.)
  34. Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection. Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).. (Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.)
  35. Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection. Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).. (Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.)
  36. The Role of Fatty Acid Metabolites in Vaginal Health and Disease: Application to Candidiasis. Baldewijns, Silke, Mart Sillen, Ilse Palmans, Paul Vandecruys, Patrick Van Dijck, and Liesbeth Demuyser.. (Frontiers in Microbiology 12, (2021): 705779. Accessed June 6, 2025.)
  37. Preliminary evaluation of a vaginal cream containing lactoferrin in the treatment of vulvovaginal candidosis. Costantino D, Guaraldi C. Studio preliminare sull'utilizzo di una crema contenente Lattoferrina nel trattamento della vulvovaginite acuta da candida. (Minerva Ginecol. 2008 Apr;60(2):121-5. Italian.)
  38. Randomised Clinical Trial in Women with Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: Efficacy of Probiotics and Lactoferrin as Maintenance Treatment. Russo, Rosario, Fabiana Superti, Eugen Karadja, and Francesco D. Seta.. (Mycoses 62, no. 4 (2019): 328-335. Accessed June 6, 2025.)
  39. Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans. Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.. (Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17)
  40. Clinicians’ Use of Intravaginal Boric Acid Maintenance Therapy for Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis and Bacterial Vaginosis. . Powell A, Ghanem KG, Rogers L, Zinalabedini A, Brotman RM, Zenilman J, Tuddenham S.. (Sexually Transmitted Diseases 46(12):p 810-812, December 2019.)

Sustr, V., Foessleitner, P., Kiss, H., & Farr, A. (2020)

Vulvovaginal Candidosis: Current Concepts, Challenges and Perspectives

Journal of Fungi, 6(4), 267

Read Review

Kalia, N., Singh, J. & Kaur, M.

Microbiota in vaginal health and pathogenesis of recurrent vulvovaginal infections: a critical review

Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 19, 5 (2020)

Read Review

Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022)

Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion

Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353

Sustr, V., Foessleitner, P., Kiss, H., & Farr, A. (2020)

Vulvovaginal Candidosis: Current Concepts, Challenges and Perspectives

Journal of Fungi, 6(4), 267

Read Review

Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022)

Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion

Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353

Kumwenda P, Cottier F, Hendry AC, Kneafsey D, Keevan B, Gallagher H, Tsai HJ, Hall RA.

Estrogen promotes innate immune evasion of Candida albicans through inactivation of the alternative complement system

Cell Rep. 2022 Jan 4;38(1):110183

Rosati D, Bruno M, Jaeger M, Ten Oever J, Netea MG.

Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: An Immunological Perspective

Microorganisms. 2020 Jan 21;8(2):144

Oliveira PM, Mascarenhas RE, Lacroix C, Ferrer SR, Oliveira RP, Cravo EA, Alves AP, Grassi MF.

Candida species isolated from the vaginal mucosa of HIV-infected women in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil

Braz J Infect Dis. 2011 May-Jun;15(3):239-44

Li H, Miao MX, Jia CL, Cao YB, Yan TH, Jiang YY, Yang F.

Interactions between Candida albicans and the resident microbiota

Front Microbiol. 2022 Sep 20;13:930495. doi:

Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022)

Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion

Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353

Rosati D, Bruno M, Jaeger M, ten Oever J, Netea MG.

Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: An Immunological Perspective

Microorganisms. 2020; 8(2):144.

Donders, G., Sziller, I. O., Paavonen, J., Hay, P., De Seta, F., Bohbot, J. M., Kotarski, J., Vives, J. A., Szabo, B., Cepuliené, R., & Mendling, W. (2022)

Management of recurrent vulvovaginal candidosis: Narrative review of the literature and European expert panel opinion

Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 12, 934353

Kucukates E, Gultekin NN, Alisan Z, Hondur N, Ozturk R.

Identification of Candida species and susceptibility testing with Sensititre YeastOne microdilution panel to 9 antifungal agents

Saudi Med J. 2016 Jul;37(7):750-7

Zhao C,,Li Y, Chen B,Yue K,Su Z,Xu J, Xue W, Zhao G, Zhang L,,,2023.

Mycobiome Study Reveals Different Pathogens of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis Shape Characteristic Vaginal Bacteriome

Microbiol Spectr11:e03152-22

Rodríguez, I. A., Cárdenas-González, J. F., Juárez, V. M. M., Pérez, A. R., Zarate, M. de G. M., & Castillo, N. C. P. (2018)

Biosorption of Heavy Metals by Candida albicans.

InTech.

Lopes JP, Lionakis MS.

Pathogenesis and virulence of Candida albicans

Virulence. 2022 Dec;13(1):89-121

Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.

Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans

Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17

Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.

Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans

Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17

Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.

Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans

Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17

Salah I, Parkin IP, Allan E.

Copper as an antimicrobial agent: recent advances

RSC Adv. 2021 May 19;11(30):18179-18186

Rodríguez, I. A., Cárdenas-González, J. F., Juárez, V. M. M., Pérez, A. R., Zarate, M. de G. M., & Castillo, N. C. P. (2018)

Biosorption of Heavy Metals by Candida albicans.

InTech.

Ayanwale AP, Estrada-Capetillo BL, Reyes-López SY.

Evaluation of Antifungal Activity by Mixed Oxide Metallic Nanocomposite against Candida spp.

Processes. 2021; 9(5):773

Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.

Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans

Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17

Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.

Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans

Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17

Zangl I, Pap IJ, Aspöck C, Schüller C.

The role of Lactobacillus species in the control of Candida via biotrophic interactions

Microb Cell. 2019 Nov 25;7(1):1-14

Zahedifard T, Khadivzadeh T, Rakhshkhorshid M.

The Role of Probiotics in the Treatment of Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Ethiop J Health Sci. 2023 Sep;33(5):881-890

Abavisani, Mohammad, Saeed Sahebi, Farhad Dadgar, Farzaneh Peikfalak, and Masoud Keikha

The Role of Probiotics as Adjunct Treatment in the Prevention and Management of Gynecological Infections: An Updated Meta-analysis of 35 RCT Studies

Taiwanese Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 63, no. 3 (2024): 357-368. Accessed June 6, 2025.

Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).

Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection

Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.

Read Review

Gandhi AB, Purandare A, Athota K, et al.

Prebiotics and Probiotics in Vulvovaginal Infections

J South Asian Feder Obst Gynae 2022;14(3):343–346.

Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).

Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection

Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.

Read Review

Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).

Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection

Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.

Read Review

Wang, Y., Liu, Z., & Chen, T. (2024).

Vaginal microbiota: Potential targets for vulvovaginal candidiasis infection

Heliyon, 10(5), e27239.

Read Review

Baldewijns, Silke, Mart Sillen, Ilse Palmans, Paul Vandecruys, Patrick Van Dijck, and Liesbeth Demuyser.

The Role of Fatty Acid Metabolites in Vaginal Health and Disease: Application to Candidiasis

Frontiers in Microbiology 12, (2021): 705779. Accessed June 6, 2025.

Costantino D, Guaraldi C. Studio preliminare sull'utilizzo di una crema contenente Lattoferrina nel trattamento della vulvovaginite acuta da candida

Preliminary evaluation of a vaginal cream containing lactoferrin in the treatment of vulvovaginal candidosis

Minerva Ginecol. 2008 Apr;60(2):121-5. Italian.

Russo, Rosario, Fabiana Superti, Eugen Karadja, and Francesco D. Seta.

Randomised Clinical Trial in Women with Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: Efficacy of Probiotics and Lactoferrin as Maintenance Treatment

Mycoses 62, no. 4 (2019): 328-335. Accessed June 6, 2025.

Besold AN, Gilston BA, Radin JN, Ramsoomair C, Culbertson EM, Li CX, Cormack BP, Chazin WJ, Kehl-Fie TE, Culotta VC.

Role of Calprotectin in Withholding Zinc and Copper from Candida albicans

Infect Immun. 2018 Jan 22;86(2):e00779-17

Powell A, Ghanem KG, Rogers L, Zinalabedini A, Brotman RM, Zenilman J, Tuddenham S.

Clinicians’ Use of Intravaginal Boric Acid Maintenance Therapy for Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis and Bacterial Vaginosis. 

Sexually Transmitted Diseases 46(12):p 810-812, December 2019.

Read Review
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