Metronidazole is an essential antimicrobial agent used to treat a wide range of infections caused by anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. It is widely employed in managing conditions such as H. pylori infections, C. difficile infections, and bacterial vaginosis.
Metronidazole
Metronidazole is a synthetic nitroimidazole antimicrobial agent classified as a pharmaceutical antibiotic, widely used to treat anaerobic bacterial and protozoal infections. Its therapeutic application spans a range of systemic and localized conditions, including bacterial vaginosis, gastrointestinal infections, and surgical prophylaxis.[1][2][3] Due to its ability to selectively target anaerobic organisms and protozoa, metronidazole has become a […]
-
Divine Aleru
I am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.
Microbiome Signatures identifies and validates condition-specific microbiome shifts and interventions to accelerate clinical translation. Our multidisciplinary team supports clinicians, researchers, and innovators in turning microbiome science into actionable medicine.
I am a biochemist with a deep curiosity for the human microbiome and how it shapes human health, and I enjoy making microbiome science more accessible through research and writing. With 2 years experience in microbiome research, I have curated microbiome studies, analyzed microbial signatures, and now focus on interventions as a Microbiome Signatures and Interventions Research Coordinator.
Overview
Metronidazole is a synthetic nitroimidazole antimicrobial agent classified as a pharmaceutical antibiotic, widely used to treat anaerobic bacterial and protozoal infections. Its therapeutic application spans a range of systemic and localized conditions, including bacterial vaginosis, gastrointestinal infections, and surgical prophylaxis.[1][2][3] Due to its ability to selectively target anaerobic organisms and protozoa, metronidazole has become a staple in microbiome-relevant therapy, particularly for conditions involving microbial overgrowth and dysbiosis.[4] Its effect on the microbiome is both therapeutic and disruptive, making careful patient selection and stewardship crucial in clinical practice.
Mechanisms of Action
Metronidazole acts through a multi-step, reductive activation pathway that ultimately disrupts microbial DNA. Upon passive diffusion into susceptible anaerobic cells, the drug undergoes intracellular reduction by ferredoxin-linked metabolic pathways—specifically, the pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) system. This reaction transforms the drug into cytotoxic nitro radical intermediates, which then bind to DNA, induce strand breaks, and collapse the helical structure of the nucleic acid, leading to irreversible cell death.[5] The concentration-dependent killing kinetics further confirm its bactericidal properties against anaerobes and select facultative organisms such as Helicobacter pylori and Gardnerella vaginalis.[6][7] Though not inherently anti-inflammatory, metronidazole indirectly reduces local inflammation by decreasing pathogen load in infected tissues, particularly in the gastrointestinal tract.[8]
Mechanism of Action | Overview |
---|---|
Antibacterial | Disrupts bacterial DNA, leading to cell death, by a mechanism involving the reduction of its nitro group in anaerobic bacteria.[9][10] |
Anti-inflammatory | Metronidazole treatments at all doses significantly reduced the levels of IL-1β and TNF-α.[11] |
Microbial Implications
Metronidazole significantly alters the gut and vaginal microbiota by reducing obligate anaerobes such as Bacteroides, Prevotella, and Clostridia. While this reduction contributes to its therapeutic efficacy in treating infections like bacterial vaginosis and amebiasis, it also decreases microbial diversity and can lead to dysbiosis. Prolonged or repeated use has been associated with the overgrowth of opportunistic organisms like Candida albicans, particularly in the vaginal and intestinal microbiota.[12][13] This antimicrobial pressure can trigger fungal infections or pave the way for resistant bacterial strains. These microbiome disruptions underscore the importance of balancing efficacy with microbial resilience.
Conditions
Condition | Status |
---|---|
Bacterial Vaginosis | Validated |
Endometriosis | Validated |
Clinical Evidence
Pivotal clinical studies have confirmed metronidazole’s high efficacy in the treatment of bacterial vaginosis, with randomized controlled trials showing microbiological cure rates after a standard 7-day oral regimen. Numerous studies have validated its role in treating protozoal infections such as giardiasis and amebiasis, particularly in low-resource settings where it remains a cost-effective standard. Furthermore, metronidazole is a cornerstone in multi-drug regimens for Helicobacter pylori eradication, where it contributes to microbial clearance in both triple and quadruple therapies.[14][15] Despite its clinical value, newer studies have raised concerns about resistance in Clostridioides difficile, leading major guidelines to demote it from first-line treatment status.[16] These insights suggest that metronidazole’s clinical effectiveness is context-dependent and increasingly reliant on stewardship.
Dosage
Metronidazole is commonly administered in doses of 500 mg every 8 to 12 hours, depending on the severity and site of infection.[17] For example, treatment of bacterial vaginosis typically involves 500 mg orally twice daily for seven days, while intra-abdominal infections may require similar dosing administered intravenously.[18][19] For protozoal infections such as giardiasis and amebiasis, dosages vary from 250 mg three times daily to 750 mg twice daily for 5 to 10 days. In H. pylori eradication, it is part of combination therapy and dosed at 500 mg two to three times daily. Duration and route are tailored according to clinical condition, formulation (oral, IV, topical), and whether it is part of a mono- or multi-drug regimen. These variations underscore the need for physician-guided decision-making based on pharmacokinetics, infection severity, and microbial susceptibility.
Safety
Metronidazole is generally safe in short-course treatments but requires vigilance in prolonged use. Patients may experience neurological symptoms, including peripheral neuropathy, dizziness, or encephalopathy, particularly when courses exceed two weeks.[20] Gastrointestinal side effects such as nausea, vomiting, and a persistent metallic taste are frequent but typically transient.[21] In vulnerable populations such as the elderly or those with hepatic impairment, close monitoring is advised, particularly when using high doses or extended regimens.
FAQs
What distinguishes metronidazole from other antibiotics in microbiome-relevant therapy?
Unlike many broad-spectrum antibiotics, metronidazole specifically targets anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. This makes it particularly effective for localized infections such as bacterial vaginosis and amebiasis. However, its selectivity also means it significantly disrupts beneficial anaerobic microbiota in the gut and vaginal tract, a factor that clinicians must weigh against its potent efficacy.
Can the disruption caused by metronidazole lead to long-term microbial imbalance or resistance?
Metronidazole has been shown to reduce microbial diversity, particularly in anaerobic niches. This can lead to opportunistic overgrowth, such as Candida species, or recurrence of infections like bacterial vaginosis. Furthermore, resistance has been reported in Helicobacter pylori and Clostridioides difficile, which may compromise treatment success if not monitored and managed through stewardship programs.
Is it safe to use metronidazole in prolonged or combination regimens?
While metronidazole is frequently part of combination therapies for complex infections, extended use increases the risk of neurotoxicity and microbiome disruption. If prolonged therapy is necessary, regular clinical monitoring, including neurological assessments and hepatic function tests is recommended. Its inclusion in multi-drug regimens can enhance antimicrobial coverage, but must be justified by clinical indication and supported by culture or sensitivity data whenever possible.
Research Feed
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Did you know?
Bacterial vaginosis (BV) increases the risk of acquiring HIV by up to 60% in women due to the disruption of the protective vaginal microbiome and the resulting inflammation that facilitates the virus’s entry.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Did you know?
Bacterial vaginosis (BV) increases the risk of acquiring HIV by up to 60% in women due to the disruption of the protective vaginal microbiome and the resulting inflammation that facilitates the virus’s entry.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Alias iure reprehenderit aut accusantium. Molestiae dolore suscipit. Necessitatibus eum quaerat. Repudiandae suscipit quo necessitatibus. Voluptatibus ullam nulla temporibus nobis. Atque eaque sed totam est assumenda. Porro modi soluta consequuntur veritatis excepturi minus delectus reprehenderit est. Eveniet labore ut quas minima aliquid quibusdam. Vitae possimus fuga praesentium eveniet debitis exercitationem deleniti.
Create a free account to unlock this study summary.
Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is caused by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota, where the typically dominant Lactobacillus species are significantly reduced, leading to an overgrowth of anaerobic and facultative bacteria.
Bacterial vaginosis (BV) is caused by an imbalance in the vaginal microbiota, where the typically dominant Lactobacillus species are significantly reduced, leading to an overgrowth of anaerobic and facultative bacteria.
Metronidazole addresses microbial imbalances in bacterial vaginosis by reducing Gardnerella vaginalis and promoting Lactobacillus growth, but biofilm-related resistance may contribute to high recurrence rates. Adjunct therapies are needed for long-term success.
Endometriosis involves ectopic endometrial tissue causing pain and infertility. Validated and Promising Interventions include Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy (HBOT), Low Nickel Diet, and Metronidazole therapy.
Metronidazole is a validated microbiome-targeted intervention (MBTI) for endometriosis, reducing key dysbiotic taxa and suppressing inflammation and lesion progression.
References
- Oral metronidazole as antibiotic prophylaxis for patients with nonperforated appendicitis. Ravari H, Jangjoo A, Motamedifar J, Moazzami K.. (Clin Exp Gastroenterol. 2011;4:273-6. Epub 2011 Dec 7.)
- Treatment of gastrointestinal infections. Banerjee S, LaMont JT.. (Gastroenterology. 2000 Feb;118(2 Suppl 1):S48-67.)
- Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or Metronidazole. Austin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL. (Metronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005)
- Fighting polymicrobial biofilms in bacterial vaginosis. Sousa, L.G.V., Pereira, S.A. & Cerca, N.. (Microbial Biotechnology. 2023;16:1423–1437.)
- Metronidazole: An update on metabolism, structure–cytotoxicity and resistance mechanisms. Dingsdag, S. A., & Hunter, N. (2018).. (Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(2), 265-279.)
- Clarithromycin Versus Metronidazole in First-Line Helicobacter Pylori Triple Eradication Therapy Based on Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents: Meta-Analysis.. urata, M., Sugimoto, M., Mizuno, H., Kanno, T., & Satoh, K. (2020). (Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(2), 543.)
- Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or Metronidazole. Austin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL. (Metronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005)
- Metronidazole reduces intestinal inflammation and blood loss in non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug induced enteropathy. Bjarnason, I., Hayllar, J., Smethurst, P., Price, A., & Gumpel, M. J. (1992).. (Gut, 33(9), 1204.)
- Metronidazole: An update on metabolism, structure–cytotoxicity and resistance mechanisms. Dingsdag, S. A., & Hunter, N. (2018).. (Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(2), 265-279.)
- Treatment of gastrointestinal infections. Banerjee S, LaMont JT.. (Gastroenterology. 2000 Feb;118(2 Suppl 1):S48-67.)
- Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Metronidazole Treatment On Carrageenan Induced Paw Edema in Mice. Inci K., Gokcen T.,. (FABAD J. Pharm. Sci., 47, 2, 175-182, 2022)
- Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or Metronidazole. Austin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL. (Metronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005)
- Treatment of gastrointestinal infections. Banerjee S, LaMont JT.. (Gastroenterology. 2000 Feb;118(2 Suppl 1):S48-67.)
- Clarithromycin Versus Metronidazole in First-Line Helicobacter Pylori Triple Eradication Therapy Based on Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents: Meta-Analysis.. urata, M., Sugimoto, M., Mizuno, H., Kanno, T., & Satoh, K. (2020). (Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(2), 543.)
- The Influence of Past Metronidazole Exposure on the Outcome of Helicobacter pylori Eradication. Choe, Y., Kim, J. S., Choi, H. H., Kim, D. B., Park, J. M., Oh, J. H., Kim, T. H., Cheung, D. Y., Chung, W. C., Kim, B., & Kim, S. S. (2022).. (Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 857569.)
- Chromosomal Resistance to Metronidazole in Clostridioides difficile Can Be Mediated by Epistasis between Iron Homeostasis and Oxidoreductases.. Deshpande A, Wu X, Huo W, Palmer KL, Hurdle JG.. (Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2020 Jul 22;64(8):e00415-20.)
- Metronidazole. Weir CB, Le JK.. (2023 Jun 26. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan)
- Fighting polymicrobial biofilms in bacterial vaginosis. Sousa, L.G.V., Pereira, S.A. & Cerca, N.. (Microbial Biotechnology. 2023;16:1423–1437.)
- Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or Metronidazole. Austin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL. (Metronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005)
- Metronidazole-associated Neurologic Events: A Nested Case-control Study. Daneman N, Cheng Y, Gomes T, Guan J, Mamdani MM, Saxena FE, Juurlink DN.. (Clin Infect Dis. 2021 Jun 15;72(12):2095-2100.)
- Metronidazole. Weir CB, Le JK.. (2023 Jun 26. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan)
Ravari H, Jangjoo A, Motamedifar J, Moazzami K.
Oral metronidazole as antibiotic prophylaxis for patients with nonperforated appendicitisClin Exp Gastroenterol. 2011;4:273-6. Epub 2011 Dec 7.
Read ReviewBanerjee S, LaMont JT.
Treatment of gastrointestinal infectionsGastroenterology. 2000 Feb;118(2 Suppl 1):S48-67.
Read ReviewAustin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL
Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or MetronidazoleMetronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005
Read ReviewSousa, L.G.V., Pereira, S.A. & Cerca, N.
Fighting polymicrobial biofilms in bacterial vaginosisMicrobial Biotechnology. 2023;16:1423–1437.
Read ReviewDingsdag, S. A., & Hunter, N. (2018).
Metronidazole: An update on metabolism, structure–cytotoxicity and resistance mechanismsJournal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(2), 265-279.
Read Reviewurata, M., Sugimoto, M., Mizuno, H., Kanno, T., & Satoh, K. (2020)
Clarithromycin Versus Metronidazole in First-Line Helicobacter Pylori Triple Eradication Therapy Based on Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents: Meta-Analysis.Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(2), 543.
Read ReviewAustin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL
Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or MetronidazoleMetronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005
Read ReviewBjarnason, I., Hayllar, J., Smethurst, P., Price, A., & Gumpel, M. J. (1992).
Metronidazole reduces intestinal inflammation and blood loss in non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug induced enteropathyGut, 33(9), 1204.
Read ReviewDingsdag, S. A., & Hunter, N. (2018).
Metronidazole: An update on metabolism, structure–cytotoxicity and resistance mechanismsJournal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(2), 265-279.
Read ReviewBanerjee S, LaMont JT.
Treatment of gastrointestinal infectionsGastroenterology. 2000 Feb;118(2 Suppl 1):S48-67.
Read ReviewInci K., Gokcen T.,
Evaluation of Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Metronidazole Treatment On Carrageenan Induced Paw Edema in MiceFABAD J. Pharm. Sci., 47, 2, 175-182, 2022
Read ReviewAustin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL
Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or MetronidazoleMetronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005
Read ReviewBanerjee S, LaMont JT.
Treatment of gastrointestinal infectionsGastroenterology. 2000 Feb;118(2 Suppl 1):S48-67.
Read Reviewurata, M., Sugimoto, M., Mizuno, H., Kanno, T., & Satoh, K. (2020)
Clarithromycin Versus Metronidazole in First-Line Helicobacter Pylori Triple Eradication Therapy Based on Resistance to Antimicrobial Agents: Meta-Analysis.Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(2), 543.
Read ReviewChoe, Y., Kim, J. S., Choi, H. H., Kim, D. B., Park, J. M., Oh, J. H., Kim, T. H., Cheung, D. Y., Chung, W. C., Kim, B., & Kim, S. S. (2022).
The Influence of Past Metronidazole Exposure on the Outcome of Helicobacter pylori EradicationFrontiers in Microbiology, 13, 857569.
Read ReviewDeshpande A, Wu X, Huo W, Palmer KL, Hurdle JG.
Chromosomal Resistance to Metronidazole in Clostridioides difficile Can Be Mediated by Epistasis between Iron Homeostasis and Oxidoreductases.Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2020 Jul 22;64(8):e00415-20.
Read ReviewWeir CB, Le JK.
Metronidazole2023 Jun 26. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan
Sousa, L.G.V., Pereira, S.A. & Cerca, N.
Fighting polymicrobial biofilms in bacterial vaginosisMicrobial Biotechnology. 2023;16:1423–1437.
Read ReviewAustin MN, Beigi RH, Meyn LA, Hillier SL
Microbiologic Response to Treatment of Bacterial Vaginosis with Topical Clindamycin or MetronidazoleMetronidazole. J Clin Microbiol 43: 1 September 2005
Read ReviewDaneman N, Cheng Y, Gomes T, Guan J, Mamdani MM, Saxena FE, Juurlink DN.
Metronidazole-associated Neurologic Events: A Nested Case-control StudyClin Infect Dis. 2021 Jun 15;72(12):2095-2100.
Read ReviewWeir CB, Le JK.
Metronidazole2023 Jun 26. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2025 Jan