Did you know?
Streptococcus spp. infections can be associated with anemia, although it is not the most commonly highlighted complication.
Streptococcus spp.
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Karen Pendergrass
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Karen Pendergrass
Karen Pendergrass is a microbiome researcher specializing in microbiome-targeted interventions (MBTIs). She systematically analyzes scientific literature to identify microbial patterns, develop hypotheses, and validate interventions. As the founder of the Microbiome Signatures Database, she bridges microbiome research with clinical practice. In 2012, based on her own investigative research, she became the first documented case of FMT for Celiac Disease—four years before the first published case study.
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Streptococcus is a genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria commonly found in pairs or chains. Important human pathogens include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes (group A strep), and Streptococcus agalactiae (group B strep).
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Karen Pendergrass
Researched by:
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Karen Pendergrass
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Karen Pendergrass
Fact-checked by:
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Karen Pendergrass
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Karen Pendergrass
Microbiome Signatures identifies and validates condition-specific microbiome shifts and interventions to accelerate clinical translation. Our multidisciplinary team supports clinicians, researchers, and innovators in turning microbiome science into actionable medicine.
Karen Pendergrass
Overview 
FAQs 
Research Feed Overview
Streptococcus spp. is a genus of gram-positive, facultatively anaerobic bacteria commonly found in pairs or chains. The primary distinctions between beneficial and pathogenic Streptococcus species lie in their physiological effects, ecological niches, and interactions with the human host. Beneficial species generally contribute to human health either through direct probiotic actions or by aiding in food digestion and preparation. In contrast, pathogenic species are associated with a range of diseases and often require medical intervention to manage infections effectively. Important human pathogens include Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes (group A strep), and Streptococcus agalactiae (group B strep). Streptococcus species are diverse in their pathogenic potential and categorized based on their hemolytic properties and bacterial antigens found on their cell walls.[x]
What species of Streptococcus are known to be beneficial?
| Beneficial Streptococcus Species | Description |
|---|---|
| Streptococcus salivarius | Often found in the mouth and upper respiratory tract, this species is considered beneficial for its role in colonizing the oral cavity soon after birth, which can help outcompete more harmful bacteria. It is used as a probiotic in some products to improve oral health and prevent sore throat. |
| Streptococcus thermophilus | This is a major culture used in the production of yogurt and cheese. It is non-pathogenic and beneficial for gastrointestinal health, and plays a role in the gut-eye axis. [x]Streptococcus thermophilus also aids in the digestion of lactose and is associated with producing anti-inflammatory effects in the gut. |
Virulence Factors
Streptococcus species exhibit several virulence factors critical to their pathogenicity. M Proteins, particularly in Streptococcus pyogenes, are surface proteins that obstruct phagocytosis, playing a crucial role in the bacterium’s virulence. Additionally, polysaccharide capsules, which are notably prominent in Streptococcus pneumoniae, also inhibit phagocytosis. In S. pyogenes, the hyaluronic acid capsule mimics human connective tissue, thus facilitating the evasion of the immune response. S. pneumoniae produces pneumolysin, a toxin that induces cell lysis and contributes significantly to inflammation and tissue damage. Further, streptolysins, a group of hemolysins produced by Streptococcus, can lyse red and white blood cells, causing further tissue destruction. These factors underscore the sophisticated mechanisms by which Streptococcus species evade immune defenses and establish infection.
| Pathogenic Streptococcus Species | Virulence Factors and Associated Conditions |
|---|---|
| Streptococcus pyogenes (Group A) | Produces toxins and enzymes such as streptolysin, which causes cell lysis. Associated with conditions such as strep throat, scarlet fever, rheumatic fever, and necrotizing fasciitis. |
| Streptococcus pneumoniae | Capsule prevents phagocytosis, pneumolysin damages respiratory epithelial cells. Leads to pneumonia, meningitis, otitis media, and sinusitis. |
| Streptococcus agalactiae (Group B) | Capsular polysaccharide inhibits phagocytosis. Known for causing neonatal sepsis, pneumonia, and meningitis in newborns. |
Ion Acquisition Systems
Iron availability within the human host is limited due to tight regulation and sequestration by host proteins such as transferrin, lactoferrin, and ferritin, which reduce free iron to inhibit bacterial growth. However, like many other pathogens, these bacteria require various metal ions, particularly iron, for essential biological processes. Iron is especially critical because it comprises proteins and enzymes involved in DNA synthesis, respiration, and other metabolic pathways. By securing necessary resources like iron from the host, Streptococcus species can proliferate and establish infections, contributing to their virulence. As such, metal ion acquisition systems play a crucial role in metal homeostasis, and the survival and pathogenicity of Streptococcus species. Thus, targeting these systems can be a viable strategy in developing novel therapeutic approaches to combat streptococcal infections.
What iron acquisition systems are used by Streptococcus spp?
| Iron Acquisition System | Description |
|---|---|
| ABC Transporters | These systems transport complexed iron across the bacterial membrane. |
| Hemolysins | Break down host hemoglobin to release iron. |
| Neuraminidases | Enzymes that enhance liberation and uptake of iron from host cells by altering cell surface properties. |
Associated Conditions
Streptococcus species are associated with a wide range of health conditions, affecting various body systems. These bacteria can cause both mild and severe infections, ranging from common throat infections, to endometriosis, to life-threatening diseases. The conditions they cause vary based on the Streptococcus species involved. The wide pathogenic potential of these bacteria highlights their significance in clinical microbiology and public health.
What are some conditions commonly attributed to Streptococcus spp. infection?
| Streptococcus Species | Associated Conditions |
|---|---|
| S. pyogenes (Group A) | Strep throat, Scarlet fever, Rheumatic fever, Impetigo, Necrotizing fasciitis |
| S. agalactiae (Group B) | Neonatal sepsis, Meningitis in newborns, Pneumonia in newborns |
| S. pneumoniae | Pneumonia, Sinusitis, Otitis media, Meningitis |
| S. mutans | Dental caries |
| S. viridans | Subacute bacterial endocarditis |
Interventions
The continuous emergence of antibiotic resistance in Streptococcus spp. underscores the importance of developing new therapeutic strategies. Research into the molecular mechanisms of resistance and pathogenicity, alongside novel treatment modalities, remains crucial in the ongoing effort to manage infections caused by these bacteria effectively.
What interventions are effective against Streptococcus spp?
| Intervention Type | Mechanism or Description |
|---|---|
| Beta-lactams (penicillins, cephalosporins) | Inhibit cell wall synthesis, preventing bacterial growth. |
| Macrolides (erythromycin) | Inhibit protein synthesis by binding to the bacterial ribosome. |
| Fluoroquinolones | Inhibit DNA gyrase, affecting DNA replication. |
| Terpenes (e.g., thymol, menthol) | Disrupt bacterial membranes and inhibit enzyme activity, found in essential oils. |
| Photobiomodulation | Induce photochemical reactions that reduce bacterial growth, enhance tissue repair, and modulate inflammation. Blue light can produce reactive oxygen species to kill bacteria, including drug-resistant strains. |
What terpenes have been clinically investigated for Streptococcus spp. infections?
Terpenes are a diverse class of naturally occurring organic compounds, mainly found in essential oils derived from plants. They have been extensively investigated for their antimicrobial properties, including their activity against various bacterial species such as Streptococcus spp. The clinical investigations into terpenes have shown promising results in controlling bacterial growth, particularly in oral and dental applications. These compounds are appealing due to their natural origin, which often makes them more acceptable to consumers looking for “natural” treatments. Terpenes offer a supplementary approach to traditional antibiotics in the context of Streptococcus spp., potentially reducing the risk of resistance development. However, future research should focus on their synergistic effects with conventional antimicrobials, optimal dosing strategies, and effectiveness in systemic infections beyond the oral cavity.
Thymol: Derived from Thyme (Thymus vulgaris), thymol has demonstrated strong antibacterial activity, particularly against Streptococcus mutans, a key bacterium involved in dental caries. Its mechanism includes disrupting the bacterial cell membrane and inhibiting enzyme activity. [x]
Carvacrol: Carvacrol, found in oregano oil (Origanum vulgare), is similar to thymol, disrupting the cell membrane and inhibiting the growth of Streptococcus spp. It has been noted for its efficacy against Streptococcal infection. [x]
Farnesol: Farnesol is a constituent of essential oil derived from various plants such as citronella, lemon grass, tuberose, cyclamen, rose, neroli, balsam, and musk with anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activity. [x] Farnesol has shown significant antimicrobial activity against several bacteria, including those notorious for antibiotic resistance, with the ability to inhibit the biofilm formation of Streptococcus spp. [x] Notably, these derivatives enhanced the effectiveness of β-lactam antibiotics such as oxacillin. Combined with these antibiotics, farnesol derivatives significantly reduced the oxacillin MIC by up to 128-fold against resistant strains, highlighting their potential utility as adjuncts in antibiotic therapy. [x]
Menthol: Extracted from peppermint oil (Mentha piperita). Acts by altering the cell membrane structure of bacteria, thereby disrupting cellular processes. Menthol is used in throat lozenges and various oral hygiene products for its soothing properties and its ability to inhibit oral pathogens, including Streptococcus species. [x]
Eugenol: Found in clove oil (Syzygium aromaticum), eugenol has been noted for its ability to disrupt the cell walls and membranes of Streptococcus spp., leading to the leakage of essential intracellular components. Eugenol is often used in dentistry for its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, particularly in root canal sealers and periodontal therapies. [x]
1-8 Cineole (Eucalyptol): Found in eucalyptus oil, cineole interferes with cell membrane function and enzymatic activity, leading to bacterial death. Used in cough syrups and dental hygiene products for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. [x]
FAQs
What else should I know about Streptococcus spp.? Streptococcus spp. infections can be associated with anemia, although it is not the most commonly highlighted complication.
What mechanisms explain anemia due to a Streptococcus spp. infection?
Chronic Disease: Chronic infections can lead to anemia of chronic disease (also known as anemia of inflammation). This type of anemia is mediated by the immune response to infection, where inflammatory cytokines interfere with iron metabolism and erythropoiesis.
Hemolytic Anemia: Certain strains of Streptococcus, notably some belonging to Streptococcus pneumoniae, produce toxins that can lead to the destruction of red blood cells, resulting in hemolytic anemia. This occurs when the bacterial toxins damage erythrocyte cell membranes, leading to premature destruction.
Nutritional Deficiency: Infections can affect the body’s nutritional status by reducing appetite or increasing nutrient requirements, contributing to deficiency-related anemia, particularly iron deficiency anemia.
Research Feed
The Revaluation of Plant-Derived Terpenes to Fight Antibiotic-Resistant Infections
The study investigated the antimicrobial effects of plant-derived terpenes against antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Key findings revealed that terpenes disrupt microbial membranes, inhibit biofilm formation, and block efflux pumps. These properties suggest terpenes as potential alternatives to traditional antibiotics, offering new strategies to combat the increasing challenge of antibiotic resistance.
What was studied?
The study focused on terpenes derived from plants as potential antimicrobial agents, particularly their effectiveness against antibiotic-resistant infections. This included an exploration of the diverse mechanisms by which terpenes combat microbial resistance, their bioavailability, and the synergistic effects when combined with other antimicrobials.
Who was studied?
The research mainly involved microbial organisms that are known to exhibit resistance to conventional antibiotics. This included a variety of pathogens such as Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with specific attention to multi-drug resistant strains.
What were the most important findings?
The study found that plant-derived terpenes have significant antimicrobial activity against resistant strains. It highlighted the mechanisms of action of terpenes, such as disruption of microbial membranes, inhibition of biofilm formation, and efflux pump inhibition. These findings suggest terpenes’ potential as effective agents in combating antibiotic-resistant infections.
What are the greatest implications of this study?
The implications are substantial in the context of global health challenges posed by antibiotic resistance. The findings suggest that terpenes could be developed into new antimicrobial agents that offer a viable alternative to traditional antibiotics. This could lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies and formulations, potentially reducing the prevalence of resistant infections and the healthcare burdens associated with them.
Lippia origanoides derivatives in vitro evaluation on polymicrobial biofilms: Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Candida albicans
This study assessed the impact of Lippia origanoides derivatives on biofilms formed by Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and Candida albicans, and their cytotoxic effects on human skin and periodontal cells. Results showed that the essential oils and terpenes, particularly carvacrol and thymol, effectively inhibited biofilm formation and had cytotoxic effects comparable to chlorhexidine. These findings suggest potential clinical applications for L. origanoides compounds.
What was studied?
The study investigated the antimicrobial effects of essential oils derived from the Colombian plant Lippia origanoides, specifically focusing on two terpenes, thymol and carvacrol, against polymicrobial biofilms of Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and Candida albicans. The study also assessed the cytotoxic effects of these compounds on human skin keratinocytes (HaCaT) and periodontal ligament fibroblasts (FLP).
Who was studied?
The microorganisms studied were Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacillus rhamnosus, and Candida albicans. Additionally, the effects of the compounds on human cell lines, specifically HaCaT keratinocytes and FLP fibroblasts, were evaluated to assess cytotoxicity.
What were the most important findings?
The study revealed several key findings regarding the effects of Lippia origanoides essential oils, especially those rich in thymol and carvacrol. These oils demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity, inhibiting and eradicating biofilms of the studied microorganisms, both in their formation and preformed states. Additionally, the essential oils were found to have a cytotoxic impact on HaCaT and FLP cell lines, comparable to that of chlorhexidine, indicating their effectiveness without increased toxicity. Furthermore, the oils effectively disrupted biofilm integrity, leading to a reduction in the number of microbial cells and the extracellular matrix.
What are the greatest implications of this study?
This study highlights the potential of natural compounds, specifically thymol and carvacrol from Lippia origanoides, as effective alternatives to traditional antimicrobials like chlorhexidine for treating oral biofilms without increasing cytotoxicity. These findings support further research into natural remedies that could combat microbial resistance and provide safer, cost-effective treatments for biofilm-associated infections. Additionally, the study underscores the importance of exploring the biodiversity of plants like Lippia origanoides for developing new therapeutic agents.
In vitro antibiofilm, antibacterial, antioxidant, and antitumor activities of the brown alga Padina pavonica biomass extract
P. pavonica methanolic extract exhibited strong antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Bacillus subtilis, and moderate antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Streptococcus agalactiae. The study concludes that P. pavonica methanolic extract exhibited effective antibiofilm, antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities.
What was studied?
The study focused on evaluating the antibiofilm, antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities of the methanolic extract of the marine algae Padina pavonica L.
Who was studied?
The subjects of the study were various microorganisms including Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Streptococcus agalactiae. Additionally, the extract’s effect on lung carcinoma cells was tested.
What were the most important findings?
The extract showed high inhibitory action against biofilm formation (88-99% effectiveness). It displayed strong antibacterial activity against several identified bacterial species and moderate activity against others. The extract demonstrated significant antioxidant properties with 84.59% DPPH radical scavenging activity. And the extract exhibited potent anticancer activity against lung carcinoma with a high range of inhibitory percent (1.79-98.25%) and a low IC50 value (15.14 µg/ml).
What are the greatest implications of this study?
This study highlights the potential of Padina pavonica as a source of natural compounds with multiple therapeutic applications, including treating infections, combating cancer, and preventing oxidative stress. The broad spectrum of activities suggests that P. pavonica could be developed into various pharmacological or nutraceutical products, thereby supporting biodiversity conservation and offering new avenues for drug development from marine resources.
Antimicrobial, Probiotic, and Immunomodulatory Potential of Cannabis sativa Extract and Delivery Systems
Overall, this study highlights the multifaceted bioactivities of cannabis-derived compounds and underscores their potential in pharmaceutical and probiotic applications.
What was studied?
The impact of photobiomodulation of major salivary glands on caries risk
This study evaluated the effects of photobiomodulation on salivary glands in high caries-risk patients, finding that light therapies significantly reduced cariogenic bacteria and improved salivary parameters, suggesting a promising non-invasive approach to dental caries prevention.
Lactoferrin
Lactoferrin (LF) is a naturally occurring iron-binding glycoprotein classified as a postbiotic with immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, and prebiotic-like properties.
Metal Homeostasis
Transition metals like iron, zinc, copper, and manganese are crucial for the enzymatic machinery of organisms, but their imbalance can foster pathogenic environments within the gastrointestinal tract.
Endometriosis
Endometriosis involves ectopic endometrial tissue causing pain and infertility. Validated and Promising Interventions include Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy (HBOT), Low Nickel Diet, and Metronidazole therapy.
Anemia
Anemia is a reduction in red blood cells or hemoglobin, often influenced by the gut microbiome's impact on nutrient absorption.